Biological Anna Rojer Carmabi
Foundation KNAP project
96-10
THE
FLORA
One island-endemic of St. Eustatius is known, a creeper of the family Convolvulaceae: Ipomoea sphenophylla , Statia Morning Glory (photo 6). This plant has in the past been gathered only a few times, for the first time in 1884 by Suringar (Howard, 1995) and later on by Boldingh. Of the scarce collected material Howard could only retrieve a sterile specimen. In 1989 Powell and Staples searched for this plant at the known sites in vain. Only in 1994 two Statians (Edwin Gawlik and Jan Faber) found flowering specimens on the Statia Terminal grounds. These and all subsequent locations lie in a small area to the south of Little Mountain (Faber, pers. com. and Rojer, personal observation, 1996) Howard proposes to consider the material gathered later by Jan Faber as neotype. Stoffers mentions another island-endemic Mapourea eustatiana in his publication of 1956 . This probably referred to another species because in part III of the “Flora of the Netherlands Antilles” of 1984, in which the genus Mapourea is described, Stoffers does not mention the species, nor as a synonym. Howard also does not mention the species in his “Flora of the Lesser Antilles”. Of the remaining 481 wild plant species of St. Eustatius, 85 species have a geographical distribution limited to the West Indies (in certain cases including Southern Florida). Of these, 18 can be found only in the Lesser Antilles (including the Virgin Islands) (3.7%) and of those 18 species, 5 are limited to only a few islands. The next species have a small geographical distribution in the Lesser Antilles.
The
variety of mosses and liverworts of St. Eustatius is known from the
study of Wiersma (Wiersma, 1984; Augustinus et. al, 1985). The moss
flora of the island consists of 40 species and the liverwort flora of
20 species. The moss flora of St. Eustatius is characterized by a high
percentage of neo-tropical species and an extreme low rate of endemism.
There are no island-endemic species among the mosses. Wiersma only rates
one species, Splachnobryum obtusum, as a Caribbean species
(West Indies and the bordering coasts of Central and South America).
The remainder of the species has a wider distribution, over the American
continent, or over the world. Wiersma (1984) observes that species with
a small geographical distribution (southern neo-tropical and Caribbean)
are limited to the higher areas (above 600 m). In
August 1996 an extremely large number of fungi and mushroom species
were found in the humid forests of The Quill (photo 7), but no information
about these could be found in the literature.
Based
on the available data it is difficult to say which species should be
considered locally rare. Of many species no locations are known or the
information is very old. However, it can be noted that a number of species
is limited to humid forest-like habitats that can only be found on the
highest parts of The Quill. This applies for instance to the Araceae
(photo 8) and most of the ferns, orchids, Piperaceae and mosses. The
only family recently reported on is the orchid family, thanks to the
research of Jan Faber. Of the 141 species known in the Lesser Antilles,
16 can be found in St. Eustatius (Howard, 1974; Faber, pers. com., 1996).
These all grow in the higher parts of the island; 9 species only on
The Quill, 1 species only in The Mountains and 5 species both on The
Quill and in The Mountains (Faber, pers. com., 1996) (photo 9). For
one species mentioned by Howard, no locations are known.
THE
VEGETATION
The present-day vegetation of St. Eustatius is determined
first by the prevalent climate and second by anthropogenic factors.
Based on the climate, a vegetation adapted to endure dry periods is
expected. This applies to the major part of the island. However, on
the higher parts of The Quill there is more rainfall than elsewhere
(section climate), and thus a richer vegetation can be found caused
by the more humid circumstances.
Edaphic
communities
The vegetation pattern on The Quill is complicated. This is caused on the one hand by differences in altitude and related differences in climatological circumstances, on the other hand by anthropogenic influence that did not have the same impact everywhere. According to Stoffers (1956) there are no less than eight different types of vegetation. Below is a short characterization of each type. Evergreen seasonal forest Inside the crater of The
Quill, from 273 meters above sea level up to the rim evergreen seasonal
forest is found (photo 10). This rich forest type is closest to the
rainforest. Three layers of trees can be distinguished plus a bush layer
and a herb layer
Among this vegetation human influence is apparent because several crop plants can be found running wild, such as coffee (Coffea arabica), cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and Mamaya (Mammea americana). These are the remnants of the cultivation at the beginning of this century (Stoffers, 1960). Part of the crater is sometimes used for the cultivation of bananas (Augustinus et all , 1985). Several paths and open places cut in the forest at the bottom of the crater were observed in August 1996, probably for the benefit of visitors. Pioneer forest In some places in the crater pioneer forest can be found. Pioneer forest develops in open places, caused by falling trees. Stoffers (1956) considers this type of vegetation amongst the optimum formations because it usually occurs in rainforests. Typical pioneer species are Wild Banana (Heliconia bihai) and the Trumpet Tree (Cecropia schreberiana). Elfin forest Elfin forest only covers a small area (not more than 4 or 5 hectare) on the highest part of The Quill's crater rim (600 m.) situated at the southeast part of the crater. This type of forest can also be found in Saba and elsewhere in the Caribbean, however only at the tops and the upper slopes of the highest peaks and mountain ridges (Stoffers, 1956). The elfin forest in St. Eustatius is different from the elfin forest in Saba. In St. Eustatius wild balsam (Clusia major) dominates this forest. There are few other tree species, among which the most striking is Ternstroemia peduncularis . The trees in the forest are very crooked and knotty, do not grow higher than 5 meters and have usually formed knee-like buttress roots. They are burdened with epiphytic mosses. However, mainly leaf-mosses as distinct from the Saban elfin forest where liverworts dominate. One liverwort does contribute much to this vegetation's appearance, i.e. the Frullania hanging down from the branches (Augustinus et all , 1985). The herb layer is well developed with for instance Begonias and Piperaceae. The elfin forest in St. Eustatius has to be considered very vulnerable because of its extremely small area. The Augustinus report et al (1985) mentions a fire that happened a few years earlier (in 1980-1981, the time the research took place?) that seriously damaged the elfin forest. The recovered vegetation is said not to be typical for the area.
Dry
evergreen forest On
the outer rim of the crater, higher than 350 meters, evergreen forest
is found (photo 12). It is clearly different from the vegetation lower
on the slopes. Many evergreen trees grow here, among others from the
genus Maytenus, Guapira and Capparis . In the herb
layer Myrtaceae dominate. Especially Birds Cherry (Myrcia citrifolia) is abundant. Epiphytic Araceae (Anthurium, Philodendron), orchids
(Epidendrum) and Bromelia (Tillandsia) are relatively abundant, particularly
in the southeast direction. Where the forest is less dense there is
a wealth of herbs: Begonias, Orchids, Anthurium and ferns (Stoffers,
1960). According to Augustinus a new analysis of this type of vegetation
is necessary because of the large number of herbs. Montane thickets From a height of 250-350 m the vegetation on the leeward and that on the windward side of the volcano differ. On the leeward side seasonal formations are found, while on the windward side a montane formation is found, i.e. a form of montane thicket. This vegetation typically only has one tree layer. The species of this tree layer are evergreens with thin boles and small crowns. The bush layer here has been replaced by a rich herb layer with Anthurium cordatum , Mountain Manna (Begonia Retusa) and Mountain Grass (Scleria lithosperma). This vegetation type is also rich in mosses (Stoffers, 1956). During the work of Augustinus et al. no mosses were collected here, but Stoffers (1956) mentions that the tree leaves are usually covered with liverworts. Semi-evergreen seasonal forest
Still more or less original semi-evergreen seasonal forest covers the northwestern slope (photo 13). Stoffers (1956) calls this forest the best example of semi-evergreen seasonal forest of the windward islands of the Netherlands Antilles. Two tree layers can be distinguished, a shrub layer and a sparse bottom vegetation. Most adult trees have low branches and umbrella-shaped crowns. Lianas are abundant, but epiphytes are relatively scarce. Some of the larger trees have buttress roots, e.g. the Cotton Tree (Ceiba pentandra). Other dominant trees are: white Cedar (Tabebuia heterophylla), Locust tree (Hymenea courbaril), Yellow plum (Spondias mombin) and the Gum tree (Bursera simaruba). The moss flora is relatively rich, the liverwort flora somewhat less so (Augustinus et al., 1985). This forest type has largely been destroyed on the Caribbean islands by the impact of human activities (Janzen, 1998). It has often been degraded to brushwood after repeated cutting of trees. In St. Eustatius too people have impacted this forest type: Stoffers (1956) saw recently cut trees, to be used for charcoal production. Nowadays these activities are probably much less common. The forest now seems in good condition and recovering from past disturbance. During the fieldwork in the area in August 1996, a fair number of fallen trees were seen, to be sure, but none of them had been cut down. They were mostly the result of hurricane Luis. Deciduous seasonal forest At the same altitude on
the southern and southwestern slopes a vegetation type is found that
Stoffers (1956) classified as probably deciduous seasonal forest. More
deciduous species are found in deciduous seasonal forest than in semi-evergreen
seasonal forest. Mappo (Pisonia subcordata) dominates the
tree layer, making up more than 50 % of the vegetation. The brush layer
is very dense and quite variable in composition. In more open areas
Bromeliads and cacti cover the bottom. In several places Mimosa (Leucaena leucocephla) dominates, indicating past use for agriculture.
Thorny woodland
Below 250 m altitude only thorny woodland is found, derived from seasonal formations (photo 14). The vegetation here has felt the greatest impact from human activities, and climatological conditions are less favorable as well. In thorny woodland, Casha (species of the genus Acacia) forms 20-80 % of the vegetation. On the western side of The Quill, Mimosa (Leucaena leucocephala) takes second place. Other important species are West Indian Cherry (Malpighia emarginata) and Black Cherry (Randia aculeata). Cacti also occur in this vegetation type. On the eastern side, species from arid vegetation types accompany the Acacia shrubs, such as species of the genus Capparis. Few mosses occur in thorny woodland (Augustinus et al., 1985). The most important vegetation types of The Quill are the elfin forest, montane thicket, evergreen and semi-evergreen seasonal forest, and the dry evergreen forest. Their importance comes from their relative rareness, and relatively slight degree of disturbance, their high degree of phytodiversity and their high perceptual value. Because of the high diversity in vegetation types, the over-all plant diversity of the volcano is very high. Since dry tropical forests have been seriously impacted by human activities worldwide, and have for instance all but disappeared in Central America and certain areas of South America (Janzen, 1988; Ceballos, 1995), conservation of these forest formations is important.
The vegetation of the hard to reach southeastern slope of The Quill was not classified by Stoffers (1956), nor was it visited in August 1996)
Grazing lands In the areas used for grazing of cattle, such as the Kultuurvlakte, Zeelandia and Behind the Mountain, grassland alternates with brushwood (photo 15), in which the Snakeberry tree (Rauvolfia viridis), West Indian Cherry (Malpighia emarginata) and Persian lilac (Clerodendron aculeatum) (photo 16) are common (per. obs., 1996). In rainy periods many herbs grow and flower here.
The Mountains Looking at Stoffers' 1956 map of the vegetation of St. Eustatius, we see that the area of The Mountains in the northwestern part of the island is almost completely covered with a vegetation type classified by Stoffers as secondary woodland derived from a forest type somewhere between seasonal forest and dry evergreen forest (11). On the side of the Kultuurvlakte this changes to thorny woodland vegetation, a seasonal formation. The whole area was used for agriculture and animal husbandry in the past and still clearly showing its influence. The present vegetation varies from place to place, both in structure and composition (Augustinus et al ., 1985). In the valley at Gilboa Hill the remains of past plantation culture are visible as sisal plants growing wild. The dominating vegetation type is abundant in acacias. In some valleys where water collects after rain showers, trees grow that prefer a moister habitat. These are the remains of past forest (Stoffers, 1960). They are mixed however, with trees from elsewhere, such as the sugar apple (Annona squamosa) and the Kinnup tree (Mellicocca bijuga). The ground under the trees is usually covered with prickly pears of the genus Opuntia . Vines such as the Passionflower (Passiflora sp.) and the Cockspur (Pisonia aculeata) are abundant. The steep slopes are generally covered with bushes, dominated by Wild sage (Lantana spec.). The moss flora in The Mountains is poor, both in true mosses and in liverworts. Although the vegetation in the area of The Mountains has had a strong anthropogenic influence and cannot be considered rare, the areas outside the property of the Oil Terminal are today relatively undisturbed. The area also has great scenic value.
White
Wall and Sugar
Loaf
Evergreen bush land The White Wall and the Sugar Loaf both consist almost completely of limestone while the rest of St. Eustatius is volcanic in origin. The vegetation too is different from the rest of the island. On top of the White Wall it is xerophytic in character. Stoffers (1956) classified it as evergreen bush land, belonging to the dry evergreen formations. This vegetation type is common in the Antillean islands, but only on limestone substrates. A layer of bush-like trees of about 4 m height can be distinguished, with a few higher emergent trees. Several species of this vegetation type are also found in littoral woodland. Many species with compound leaves are microphyllous. The leaves are scaly-rough, glossy or fleshy.
On the steep walls of White Wall and Sugar loaf, only few plants can grow. This rock pavement vegetation (photo 17), belonging to the evergreen formations, is composed of only few species among which are Strumfia maritiima, Sea Grape (Coccoloba uvifera) and Bitter Pod (Urechites lutea). Although the vegetation on White Wall and Sugar Loaf cannot be considered regionally rare, it is rare at the island level as well as for the Dutch Windward Islands. Coasts Along the coast a few different vegetation types are found. Littoral woodland, considered by Stoffers (1956) to be part of the dry evergreen formations, is only found at Concordia Bay and Venus Bay. In a strip behind the beach at Concordia Bay, this vegetation is very dense and abouth 3 m high. Sea Grape (Coccoloba uvifera) dominates. In addition a few specimens of Waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and Thespesia populnea are present. At Venus Bay this vegetation type has a different composition. It is poor in species and consists almost completely of low, wind-flattened bushes of Button Wood (Concocarpus erecta). Beach vegetation and Hippomane woodland Edaphic communities are also uncommon on St. Eustatius. Stoffers (1956) distinguishes two types: Beach scrub community and Hippomane woodland. The first is found on the pebble beach at Fort de Windt, where Big Gut runs into the sea. White Lavender (Argusia gnaphalodes) and Euphorbia mesenbrianthemifolia are important species here. According to Stoffers (1956), hippomane woodland was found between Oranjestad and Gallows Bay, and at Tumble Down Dick Bay. This last location has now been severely disturbed by the activities of the Oil Terminal. All these coastal communities are rare for the island and scenically valuable. THE FAUNA MAMMALS As in St. Maarten and Saba, bats are the only mammals not imported by humans. It is curious that Husson (1960) does not list any species for St. Eustatius. He does mention that in the literature consulted by him only once reference was made to bats in St. Eustatius, i.e. by van Kol (1904, in Husson 1960): “ On the plain still stood the building of the former sugar factory 'Fair Play' … and which now serves as housing for bats”. Knox Jones and Phillips (1970) list five species for St. Eustatius (Appendix III), one omnivorous, two fruit eating and two insectivores. None of these species is endemic to the island. However, two of them do have a limited geographic distribution as species and two as subspecies:
The fifth species, Artibeus jamaicensis , the Jamaica Fruit-eating Bat, is a widely distributed species (Knox Jones and Phillips, 1970). It is a fairly large fruit-eater. No information was found in the literature about locations of diurnal roosts or foraging areas of Statian bats. There are no caves on the island. This limits settlement of large groups of bats that live in colonies, such as the St. Vincent Fruit-eating Bat, a few hundred of which live in a small cave on St. Maarten (see report on St. Maarten). During my stay on St. Eustatius in August 1996 I have seen bats in Down Town, but it was not possible to determine which species they were. Nor did any of the several informants know of any diurnal roosts. Additional literature research and field study is needed. In particular it is important to know the population size of the Tree Bat, in view of the small distribution range of this species/subspecies. Apparently it is not common in the rest of its range either (Peterson et al , 1996). Possible roosts of Statian bats are hollow trees, empty buildings, under the roofs of occupied buildings, and accessible water reservoirs. The fruit-eating bats play an important role in the forest ecosystems for the distribution of seeds. Insectivores help to control insect populations. In this last case they are useful to agriculture and horticulture. BIRDS
In total the avifauna of St. Eustatius consists of 54 species (Voous, 1983). Of these, 26 are local or nesting birds, 28 are migratory birds and non-nesting visitors. There are 12 species of sea birds, 3 are nesting and 9 are non-nesting (Annex III). There are no island endemics among the birds of St. Eustatius. There are however, species with a limited geographical range. Thus 5 birds are endemic for the Lesser Antilles and Virgin Islands at the species level and another 5 at the subspecies level (Annex III). The
following species are endemic for the Lesser Antilles and Virgin Islands
at the species level:
And at the subspecies level:
Caribs and Hummingbirds The Green-throated Carib and Antillean Crested Hummingbird are common birds on St. Eustatius that also visit flowers in gardens. The Purple-throated Carib however, just like on other islands, is restricted to moister habitats such as found on the higher parts of The Quill (Photo 18). Thrasher The Scaly-breasted Thrasher is a shy bird with a preference for the dense foliage of woodland or high bushland, though it does go down to the ground to feed on fallen fruit (Evans, 1990). It is relatively common on most islands within its range, but the last observations on St. Eustatius date back to 1927, when several individuals were seen (Voous, 1983). Whether the bird still occurs on St. Eustatius then, is uncertain. It may have been overlooked by observers, because of its hidden lifestyle. Trembler The trembler too can be easily missed. It is generally very quiet and inconspicuous. This bird is found only in rainforest or similar vegetations and nowhere in its range is it very common (Evans, 1991). The subspecies found in St. Eustatius ranges from Saba to Montserrat. The only evidence for its occurrence on St. Eustatius consists of one specimen collected in 1880, and the sound of its song in The Quill crater in 1952 (Voous, 1983). Only in and around the crater of The Quill does suitable habitat for this bird exist. Other species/subspecies with limited geographical range The lesser Antillean Bullfinch, the Zenaida Dove, the Common Ground Dove, the Caribbean Elaenia, and the Yellow Warbler are all species that can live in the dryer and secondary habitats. They are all common within their range, as they are on St. Eustatius. The subspecies of the Lesser Antillean Bullfinch only inhabits the northern islands of its range, southward to Montserrat. On St. Maarten a different subspecies is found. The subspecies of the Yellow Warbler is limited to the northern islands of the 'Lesser Antilles. Larger dove species One species, Geotrychon mystacea , the Bridled Quail Dove, also has a limited range, but it extends outside of the Lesser Antilles. This large species of dove is found in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and the Lesser Antilles (Evans, 1990; Chipley, 1991). The bird is most abundant on the larger of the Virgin Islands, where its numbers have increased since the beginning of the 20 th century. Elsewhere however, the species has declined and according to Evans (1990) should be considered highly endangered. In Dominica and Barbuda it is supposed to be extinct already. In the three main zones of occurrence in Puerto Rico, except for a few locations Bridled Quail Doves were so scarce, as to make it practically impossible to study their relative abundance (Rivera-Milán, 1992). The Bridled Quail Dove is the only species on St. Eustatius that is listed in the ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book of 1992. It is listed as a near threatened species. ON St. Eustatius this bird is only known from the forest and woodland around the top and in the crater of The Quill, where it was observed only as recent as August 1996. The Bridled Quail Dove of the island of Guana (one of the Virgin Islands) too is only found in wooded habitats (dry evergreen forest) and avoids vegetations of cacti and thorny bushes (Chipley, 1991). They are animals of the lower layer. They forage on the forest floor.. They have never been seen flying above the tops of the trees. This marks the importance of the forest on the slopes and in the crater of The Quill, for the survival of this bird on St. Eustatius. Another large species of dove, the Red-necked Pigeon (Columba squamosa) is another bird that prefers dense woods and is found on St. Eustatius mostly in the high trees around The Quill crater (Voous, 1983), though it was also observed close to the sea (at Fort de Windt) in August 1996 (Rojer, pers. obs.). This bird is much hunted on the Caribbean island, which has probably caused its scarcity in many parts of its range (Evans, 1991), such as on St. Maarten. It is also found on the Leeward Islands of the Netherlands Antilles, but is extinct on Aruba. It appears that not much bird hunting is going on nowadays on St. Eustatius. This works out favorably for these and other elsewhere much persecuted birds. Birds of prey The Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamicensis jamaicensis) deserves special mention. Evans (1990) calls it a common species in the northern Caribbean region. On St. Eustatius however, this bird can be considered at least rare, and on St. Maarten it is extinct. There are several reports for St. Eustatius (Voous, 1983), especially from the Little Mountains and around The Quill, nevertheless this bird was not observed in August 1996, nor could informants affirm its presence. It would seem likely then that this bird is a winter visitor from more northern reaches, as is indicated by Evans (1991). It was also observed flying oversea between Saba and St. Eustatius (Voous, 1983). Voous feels that a study of its way of life on the islands is very much needed. The American Kestrel (Falco sparverius caribaeum) is a widespread small bird of prey, that is listed on appendix II of CITES. On St. Eustatius the species is markedly numerous in areas with human activities. Everywhere in its range this bird has a preference for open parkland (Voous, 1955). It was observed in several locations in August 1996. Other terrestrial breeding birds The other 9 terrestrial breeding birds (Annex III) of St. Eustatius make use of dryer and more open habitats, or can utilize different habitats, with the exception of two breeding species of night heron, the Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa violacea bancrofti) and the Green Heron (Butorides striatus virescens) that live in coastal habitats. According to Voous (1983) the Yellow-crowned Night Heron is hunted. These 9 species are all widely distributed, and almost all are common. Seabirds
Shearwater Most seabirds breeding in the Caribbean, also breed elsewhere. However, the breeding grounds of Audubon's Shearwater are almost exclusively restricted to the Caribbean region (van Halewyn and Norton, 1984). The islands of the Southern Lesser Antilles and Tobago probably harbor the largest part of the breeding population. The nesting habitat is quite varied. The birds nest in holes on the ground high in the hills, but also in natural hollows under cliffs, rocks and limestone, sometimes only just above sea level. On some islands, as on St. Eustatius (Voous, 1983) the birds are, or were killed and/or their eggs collected for consumption. Several observations from St. Eustatius are known but there is no proof of breeding. It is suspected that the birds at least used to breed at Tumble Down Dick Bay and Gallows Bay. They are mostly active at night at nesting sites, so nests can easily escape attention (van Halewyn and Norton, 1984). The first location mentioned however, is much disturbed nowadays by the activities of the Oil Terminal. Tropicbirds Two species of tropicbirds nest on St. Eustatius. The Red-billed Tropicbird ( Phaeton aetherius mesonauta ) is possibly threatened according to van Halewyn and Norton (1984). Its status should therefore be monitored. The Red-billed Tropicbird also nests elsewhere, but its main breeding grounds are in the Caribbean. According to van Halewyn and Norton (1984) this species is most numerous on theVirgin Islands and Tobago. According to recent counts on nearby Saba however, this small islands harbors the largest breeding population of Red-billed Tropicbirds (Walsh-McGehee, pers. comm. 1997). On St. Eustatius many nesting sites of this bird are known in the cliffs almost completely surrounding the whole island, and on the steep slope of White Wall. The breeding season is in winter and spring (Voous, 1983). The birds have also been filmed on White Wall in1982 by Peter Creutzberg. Voous (1983) estimated their number at a little over 20 pairs and van Halewyn and Norton (1984) give a number of 33 pairs. These numbers may be too low. A rough estimate of the number of pairs of Red-billed Tropic Birds on Saba by Walsh-McGehee and Lee in April 1997, based on counts (Walsh-McGehee, 1997) results in much higher numbers than Voous' estimate for Saba (1983). According to van Halewyn and Norton (1984), eggs of the Red-billed Tropicbird are occasionally collected and birds sometimes killed, but these activities are limited because the nesting sites (holes in the sea cliff walls) are usually inaccessible. In several places lack of sufficient nesting habitat may be a limiting factor for population size. That is why the Caribbean populations are small, but relatively stable according to van Halewyn and Norton, (1984). Walsh-McGehee (1997) however, warns that coastal development, so common on West Indian islands, is causing enormous habitat losses. In August 1997, no birds were seen at the known nesting sites of White Wall and Concordia Bay, but informants assured that they had recently been seen at those sites (Faber, pers. comm. 1996) and had also been seen from sea at Jenkins Bay (van 't Hof, pers. comm. 1996). The White-tailed or Yellow-billed Tropicbird (Phaeton lepturus catesbyi), which also nests on St. Eustatius, is in the minority compared to the Red-billed Tropicbird. According to van Halewyn and Norton, (1984) the latter is dominant over the first whenever there is competition for nesting sites. Their breeding season only partly overlaps, however. The Yellow-billed Tropicbird breeds in spring and summer. Voous (1983) only reports one nesting site on St. Eustatius. According to van Halewyn and Norton, (1984) the conservation status of this species is not really worrying, but recent data suggest that the Caribbean breeding populations have decreased by half since the 1980s (Walsh-McGehee, pers. comm. 1997). Coastal development and loss of nesting sites are supposed to be the main cause for their decline. The species was not observed in August 1996. A number of seabirds with an endangered status can be seen regularly on the coasts of St. Eustatius, but they breed elsewhere, e.g. the Brown Pelican and the Magnificent Frigatebird. Migrants and Visitors St. Eustatius, like the other Antillean islands, is important for migratory birds from the northern part of the continent, but only few waders and other migratory wetland birds are to be found, because of the lack of suitable habitat. Eight species of songbirds and two species of bird of prey have been sighted passing through the island or spending the winter months (Annex III). AMPHIBIANS
AND REPTILES Reptiles are represented by 12 species, 8 lizards, one snake, and three species of sea turtle (Annex III). St. Eustatius has no island endemics among reptiles, but does have species and subspecies with a small geographic range. Of the 12 species, 7 are restricted to the Lesser Antilles. Although there is no proof, it is possible that the islands of St. Eustatius, St. Kitts and Nevis, like the islands of the Anguilla Bank, were joined during the ice ages. IN present times they lie together on a shallow submarine plateau, the St. Kitts Bank (see chapter on geology). The geographic range of the Statian reptiles would indicate this; of the 7 Lesser Antilles' species three are restricted to the islands of the St. Kitts Bank, one as a species and two as subspecies. One species is only found on St. Eustatius and Saba, while being extinct on St. Kitts and Nevis. One species, besides occurring on the islands of the St. Kitts Bank, is also found on Saba, and one occurring on the islands of the St. Kitts Bank, is in addition found on the islands of the Anguilla Bank. All these species merit special attention because of their limited range. The Red-bellied Racer
The
snake Alsophis rufiventris (photo 22) has a very limited
geographic range. IN additon to St. Eustatius, it is only found on Saba.
The animal used to live on St. Kitts and Nevis, but has not been seen
there since the 19th century (Daltry et al. , 1997).
That was when the mongoose was introduced to those islands. Because
of the dramatic decline of its range (from 302 km 2 to
33 km 2 ), the Red-bellied Racer is now listed as endangered
on the IUCN's “Red List of Threatened Animals” of 1996. On
St. Eustatius it is still present in high densities, especially in the
southern, forested areas (Daltry et al. , 1997). The animal
is often seen during field trips (Faber, pers. comm.., 1996). In August
1996 too, this snake was observed. This was in the vegetation on the
rim of the crater. The absence of the mongoose on St. Eustatius clearly
has a positive effect on the occurrence of this snake. However, 55 %
of the snakes had incomplete tails, which suggests that they are nevertheless
seriously predated (Daltry et al. , 1997). The natural enemy
of this snake is the American kestrel, Falco sparverius , but
also cats and even chickens have snake on their menus. Rats eat snake
eggs and on other islands are known to also attack the snake itself.
Moreover people on St. Eustatius persecute snakes believing them to
be poisonous. Daltry et al. , 1997 point out the danger of
accidental introduction of the mongoose from other islands. The Red-bellied
racer preys on Eleutherodactylus and lizards (Schwartz and
Henderson, 1975). These prey are present in abundance, especially in
the wooded habitats.
The ground lizard The ground lizard of St. Eustatius (Ameiva erythrocephala) is only found on the islands of the St. Kitts Bank. There are a total of 19 different species of the genus Ameiva known from the West-Indian region, and 9 of those are limited to the Lesser Antilles and Virgin Islands (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991). Of those 9 however, two species are already extinct. The ground lizard of St. Maarten belongs to a different species. Ameiva erythrocephala is common on St. Eustatius and in August 1996 was seen in different habitats, from the lowest parts of the island along the coast to close to the crater rim.
Tree lizards Anolis bimaculatus bimaculatus (photo 20) is only found on the islands of the St. Kitts Bank, Barbuda and Antigua, while the subspecies only occurs on the islands of the St. Kitts Bank. The latter is also true for Anolis wattsi schwartzi (photo 21). Both species live practically separated because of their different habitat preference (Lazell, 1972). Anolis wattsi schwartzi prefers humid forest habitats, while Anolis bimaculatus bimaculatus prefers dry open habitats. Lazell (1972) suspects that the latter species was able to increase its range because of the reduction in forest after the increase of agriculture, and thus can now be found sympatrically with the first species.
Observations in August 1996 support this view. On the slopes and on the rim of the crater of The Quill only Anolis wattsi schwartzi was seen. It is abundant there. In The Mountains too, as well as in the lowlands, even close to sea, this lizard was found, but always in shady spots under trees and not in such densities as on the higher parts of The Quill. Wherever the two species come into contact with each other they react strongly (Lazell, 1972). Adolph and Roughgarden (1983) found that none of the bird species of St. Eustatius was a bigger food competitor than the two tree lizards and the ground lizard are to each other. Predation by the Pearly-eyed Thrasher and the American Kestrel had little effect on the niche relations between the two tree lizards. Gecko's The gecko Sphaerodactylus sabanus is found on the islands of the St. Kitts Bank as well as on Saba. Another gecko, Sphaerodactylus sputator occurs on both the islands of the St. Kitts Bank and those of the Anguilla Bank. Of these two gecko species no more can be said than that they both have a preference for mesophilic habitats and their lives are cryptic. Nothing is known about their status. Hemidactylus mabouia and Thecadactylus rapicauda are widespread species often found in buildings. They have likely been introduced by humans. Caribbean Iguana Although the Caribbean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima) (photo 23) looks very much like the Green Iguana, it is a different species that is found only on the Lesser Antilles. Like the Green Iguana it is listed on Appendix II of CITTES. In 1973 Lazell still speaks of a healthy and viable population, but in 1992 their number was estimated to be less than 500 (Carmabi/Stinapa year reports, 1992). The situation is not much better on other islands. Based on the observations by different people the status of the species in 1992 looks to be as follows: endangered on 7 islands, vulnerable on one island, possibly extinct on two islands, and definitely extinct on 4 islands (including St. Maarten and St. Kitts) (Carmabi/Stinapa year reports, 1992) (translator's note: In 1998 a small population of Caribbean Iguana's was found inhabiting the Flamingo Pond area in St. Maarten, when it was being filled in for extension of the airport. The animals were rescued by the Nature Foundation and released on Paradise Peak). The main causes for this are habitat destruction and intensive hunting by people for consumption purposes.
On St. Eustatius too the Caribbean iguana is hunted, although the meat is not especially appreciated by the Statians themselves. According to informants people from off-island, working on St. Eustatius for the Oil terminal, are doing most of the hunting. In times of unemployment Statians will also hunt the iguanas to sell them. The absence of Mongoose introduced in other islands (e.g. in St. Maarten) is a very favorable condition for the preservation of the population. This iguana lives in a wide variety of habitats, from xerophytic cactus vegetations to rainforest. In 1992 the Caribbean iguana was found both in The Mountains and on the lower slopes of The Quill (Leysner, pers. comm. 1996). Recently specimens were seen on Little Mountain (Faber, pers. comm., 1996). Sea turtles Two species of sea turtle are common in the sea around the island: the Green Turtle (Chelonia midas) and the Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). The Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) is less common. All three species are listed on Appendix I of CITES as endangered species. Green Turtle and Leatherback have in the past used the beach of Concordia Bay to lay eggs (ECNAMP, 1980; Sybesma and Eckert, 1992). Although this beach, situated on the windward side of the island, seems quite suitable for nesting, it appears not to be used intensively by the sea turtles. Reports about this are scarce. It was gratifying that in June of 1997, for the first time in years, a nest with sea turtle eggs was found again (Beurs and Nieuwsberichten, 1997). It concerned a Leatherback. According to people from the island, disturbance by lights from a newly built hotel has caused the decline in number of nesting sea turtles (Lloyd Courtar, pers. comm. in van Buurt, 1984). Other negative impacts are illegal sand mining (Begemans in Beurs and Nieuwsberichten, 1997), pollution of the beach by marine debris and the accessibility of the beach to automobiles. In August 1996 visitors were observed driving up and down the beach in a heavy car, all the way up to the water line. According to informants the Statians do not hunt sea turtles, but fishermen from other islands do come to the island to hunt them.
Other
animals Little is known about invertebrates of St. Eustatius, other than some names and collecting sites (photo 24). Nothing can be said about the status of these animals. In the crater of The Quill land crabs are found (Faber, pers. comm., 1996). This would probably be the Mountain Crab, Gecarcinus ruricola , a species intensively hunted on Saba. This animal is of ecological significance as a detritivore in Caribbean terrestrial ecosystems. In addition to this species it is likely that other land crabs occur, as well as the hermit crab Coenobitus clypeatus . From the literature and from personal communications furthermore, the follwing animals are known from St. Eustatius: 13 species of terrestrial snails (Vernhout, 1914; Haas, 1960 and 1962), one species of scorpion (De Armas, 1983) ), one mite (Kohls, 1969) and 66 species of insect (Weber, 1948; v.d.Kuyp, 1953 and 1954; Cobben, 1960; Drake en Cobben, 1960; Marcuzzi, 1962; Forrest Gilmour, 1963; De Kort-Gommers en Nieser, 1969; v.Doesburg, 1970, Wygodzinsky, 1975; Stuzák en Cobben, 1975; Marcuzzi, 1977; Simonthomas, 1984), including 22 species of diurnal butterflies (Smith et al., 1994; Miller and Miller, pers. comm., 1996) (Appendix IV). In August 1996 a total of 9 species of terrestrial snails and 11 species of butterflies were collected in St. Eustatius. The terrestrial snails were sent to specialist Dr. A. Hovestadt for identification, and the butterflies were sent to butterfly specialist Lee D. Miller for final identification.
THREATS
NATURE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT HISTORY
AND PRESENT SITUATION In 1968 Stinapa N.A. foundation made definite proposals to establish reserves and the management of some of them by the foundation (Westermann, 1969). Several expert authors such as Westermann (1969), Mörzer Bruyns (1969), Kristensen (1978) and Voous (1979) supported this initiative. Among the areas that according to Stinapa were in need of protected status was The Quill. Westermann (1969) calls The Quill: “probably the most beautiful volcano of the Antilles with its fine cone shape and wide, deep and forest-covered crater”. To lend strength to his plea he quotes the lyrical outpourings of Molengraaff (1886) from the previous century, who calls the rim of the crater “certainly the most alluring place to stay awhile”, and talks about “the treasures of the tropical vegetation” and “the surprising glimpses through openings in the greenery”. Westermann is of the opinion that the Stinapa proposal to establish and manage The Quill as a nature reserve deserves active and speedy realization by the government, specifically because of scientific, tourism, geological and hydrological reasons. He points out the threats of axe and fires and of soil erosion enhanced by deforestation. Mörzer Bruyns (1969) states that there is no doubt of the importance of Stinapa's proposal to designate this area as National Park. He proposes not to allow any development above the 200-meter line and set the limits of the park there, at least on the side of the Kultuurvlakte, elsewhere preferably run all the way to the sea. Voous (1979) call The Quill: “ a geological formation determining the aspect of the island”. He deems the volcano simultaneously of great scientific and of esthetic value. The Quill must be preserved untouched and intact for future generations. Voous pleads for conservation of the integrity of landscape, nature and history. He warns against expansion of the road system and in particular against a coastal road around The Quill. He also notes that on most of the Lesser Antilles the humid slope forests with the accompanying animal life are highly endangered by tree cutting and subsequent erosion, and thus the forest on the slopes and inside the crater is of more than local importance. In addition to The Quill, Stinapa also proposed to obtain the legal rights of use of the area of White Wall and Sugar Loaf, in order to preserve and manage it as a nature reserve (Westermann, 1969). Westermann supports this proposal arguing that such rock plates tilted by volcanic forces are rare. Although found in St. Kitts they are less monumental there. “It is a wonder of nature that knows no equal”. He also points out the importance of White Wall as nesting area for Red-billed Tropicbirds. Mörzer Bruyns too (1969) is of the opinion that both formations, forming a geographical whole with The Quill, should be part of the National Park as proposed by Stinapa. About the area of The Mountains Mörzer Bruyns supposes that further study will reveal it to be of scientific and in particularly of biological interest, and that careful and specific management will increase the biological diversity of the area. He also points out that St. Eustatius harbors a lot of special birds that, however, only occur in small populations. Establishment of one or two national parks or reserves, would increase the chances of these populations. Voous (1979) feels that nature and landscape in the area of Little Mountains should be preserved for the benefit of a romantic tourism island. Kristensen (1978) shares this opinion. He argues that the hills in the northwest merit complete protection. The St. Eustatius Historical Foundation, established in 1974 (De Palm, 1985) from the start engaged itself in nature conservation. This was apparent among other things from the establishment of the first underwater park of the Netherlands Antilles at Jenkin's Bay (Kristensen, 1978) Due to lack of tourist interest and legal basis for the park, not much was left of this initiative over the following years. Only in 1993, as part of the Netherlands Antilles Tourism Development Program, Carmabi, based on a study of the natural and cultural resources, prepared a zoning plan, which was presented to the island government (Carmabi/Stinapa year reports, 1993). In 1982 Stinapa N.A. drafted a plan to make The Quill into a National Park (Carmabi/Stinapa year reports, 1982). Although the island government, the Bureau of Culture and Education and STICUSA supported this plan it was never realized. In 1983 however, some ten nature trails were constructed as a first step towards establishment of a park. The cooperation between the Historical Foundation and Stinapa was also apparent from the filming of a nature documentary on St. Eustatius by Peter Creutzberg during that same period. The initiatives to establish The Quill as a nature park did not always receive the desired support however, as may be demonstrated by the opinion of G. Sleeswijk, Lieutenant Governor of St. Eustatius in 1986. According to this Lieutenant Governor, legislation to make The Quill a protected area was unnecessary, because there were no real threats such as construction of houses or cutting of trees (Walstra, 1987). Nevertheless the attempts to safeguard the natural heritage of the island continued. In 1993 the St. Eustatius Historical Foundation passed over into the St. Eustatius National Parks Foundation (STENAPA Foundation), which focused more than before on nature conservation and management. At the time of this writing STENAPA is trying to raise funding for the underwater park and two nature parks on land: one in the area of The Mountains and on in the area of The Quill. In addition a Botanical Garden is being worked on in the area Behind the Mountain. STENAPA also made efforts to establish a legal framework. In 1997 the “Island Ordinance for the Protection of Fauna and Flora” came into force. Ipomoea sphenophylla , 15 species of orchids and the Caribbean Iguana are among the protected flora and fauna listed in this ordinance. The ordinance also aims at protection and conservation of unique or characteristic landscapes. This includes the area of The Quill above 250 m altitude, the cliff wall in the Lower Town area, and the areas designated as Boven, Venus, Gilboa Hill and Bergje. RESEARCH FOR CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT In the past several studies have been completed that are useful for the actual nature conservation management, e.g. the study of the moss flora and vegetation (Wiersma, 1984) and the study of biotic and abiotic components of the landscape (Augustinus et al. , 1985). In 1997 a study of the endangered Red-bellied Racer started. This study is part of the “Red-bellied Racer Conservation Project”, an initiative of Fauna & Flora International. Continuation and research in other areas is indispensable. In the report of Augustinus et al. (1985) among other things the need to reevaluate the various vegetation types is pointed out. Also indicated is an analysis of the vegetation of the southeastern slope of The Quill, which was not studied by Stoffers in 1956. The steep, inaccessible inner walls of the crater form another important object of study, while too little is as yet known about the development of the vegetation in the area of The Mountains. With respect to the small area of elfin forest, its recovery after the fire must be looked into. In addition a floristic survey of the proposed conservation areas is needed. In addition to the Red-bellied Racer St. Eustatius possesses several other regionally rare or endangered animal species. In order to ensure their continued survival it is necessary to study these island populations further. Voous (1983) for example, as long as ten years ago indicated the need to study the habits of the Red-tailed Hawk. Halewyn and Norton (1984) urge the study and the monitoring of endangered and possibly endangered seabirds in the Caribbean. About the status of invertebrates nothing much can be said at the moment. Here too is a wide unexplored field for study. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
During my visit to St. Eustatius in August 1996 I received the cooperation of various people and authorities. Without their help this report would lack important recent information. I want to thank Jan Faber of the St. Eustatius national Parks Foundations and Brian Leysner for the invaluable information they provided me with, Jan Faber particularly where orchids were concerned and Brian Leysner particularly with respect to the Caribbean Iguana. Jan Faber also familiarized me with the island and arranged for transport and lodging. Thanks to his support and advice it was possible to make optimal use of the time available to me for this project. Brian Leysner also provided two pictures in this report: no. 20 of Anolis bimaculatus bimaculatus and no. 23 of the Caribbean Iguana. I also want to thank Jacques van der Horde and Hans Duizendstra for their willingness to guide me on a trip through the area of The Mountains to Boven, and last but not least Laura and Win of the King's Well Hotel for their interest, the good care they took of me and the special STENAPA rate. Finally I thank L.D. Miller and J. Y Miller of the “Allyn Museum of Entomology” for allowing me to use their unpublished list of butterflies of St. Eustatius. This list was realized thanks to project financing from the National Geographic Society.
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